Zayd ibn Thabit
and the Glorious Qur’an
by
Mohamad K. Yusuff
Introduction: In any systematic study of
the history of Islam covering the past 1,420 years A.H., an objective reader of
history will encounter varied classes of eminent Muslim men and women scattered
across the vast geography of the then Islamic empire. The intellectual
contributions of these scholars, jurists, and theologians toward the promotion
of Islam as a faith and a way of life have been well documented over time.
However, within the narrower field of study, dealing
exclusively with the textual history of the Sacred Qur’an, from revelation to
compilation, no single individual—man or woman (in my view), has personally
contributed more to, (or has played a more dominant role in), the compilation
of the Qur’anic manuscript (gathered together under two covers) than Zayd ibn
Thabit, the Prophet’s junior companion from Madina. The sacred Text
we hold and touch today can be truly called “the Qur’an of Zayd ibn Thabit.” Simply put, Zayd is to the Qur’an what Imam
al Bukhari is to the Prophetic Sunnah.
Two men … two books! Excluding the Prophet himself, Zayd
ibn Thabit and Imam al Bukhari undoubtedly can be considered the two
most important men in all of Islam for their extraordinary and exclusive
contribution in compiling Islam’s Sacred Scripture. In the January 2004 issue
of the Voice of Islam, we presented in these pages a brief biography of Imam
al Bukhari, the historian/compiler of the famous Hadith Text,
commonly known as Sahih al Bukhari. We have also published
(in five installments) the historic Development of Hadith Literature.
Purpose: From a layman’s perspective, I will attempt to do the same
with Zayd ibn Thabit, who, according to tradition, was
commissioned to lead the project to bring the glorious Qur’an into book form
for the first time in recorded history, under the auspices of the first three
orthodox caliphs. My primary objective here is to briefly outline the historic
record behind Zayd’s critical work in gathering the “written materials of
Qur’anic verses” and assembling them under two covers, shortly after the death
of the Prophet in 632 C.E. In short, this paper will attempt to show that the
scholarly career of Zayd mirrors the development of the written Qur’an.
Ignored by Modern Historians: Before I begin, however,
it is relevant to note that very little ink has been consumed on the biography
of Zayd ibn Thabit in the English language, despite his dominant contribution
to the existence of the written Qur’an we have today. Evidence of this can be
seen from Zayd’s absence from the standard encyclopedias and other biographical
works, prepared by modern Muslim and non-Muslim writers and historians. For
example, no reference is made about Zayd in any of the books in this small sample:
Phases of Historic Development: Traditional sunni
orthodoxy holds the view that the Revelation of the Noble Qur’an took place in two
separate and distinct sequences.
First Sequence: In this account, the Qur’an was revealed in
its entirety in the fasting month of Ramadan, on the night of layl
al qadr (Night of Power); that is, in one of the odd-numbered
nights in the last ten days of Ramadan. In this narration, Allah caused the
primordial Qur’an to descend (all at once) from the “Guarded Tablet,”
al lawh al mahfuz, to the lowest heaven, al bayt al `izzah,
the House of Honor (or Power). The following verses are cited to
support this construction:
Second Sequence: In this phase of the Revelation, passages
from the pre-existing Tablet (in the lower heaven) was transmitted in parts and
at intervals, from Jibril to Prophet Muhammad, in a process that spanned the
Messenger’s entire 23-year ministry. The Qur’an confirms: “And (it is) a
Qur’an which We have divided (into parts from time to time) in order that you
(Muhammad) may recite it to the people at intervals; We have revealed it by
stages.” [Al Israa’/17:106]
This article deals with the Second Sequence. In this
context, historical records show that the compilation of the noble Qur’an can
be divided into three distinct phases:
The Qur’an on the Qur’an: The Message of the Glorious Qur'an (Speech of Allah) was transmitted verbatim, from Allah via Archangel Gabriel to the
Messenger. The Qur’an explains this divine procedure:
These verses clearly explain the transmission
process of the Qur'anic messages, by messenger and by inspiration--a
methodology by which the revelation would be protected and could not be forged!
Allah imprinted the revealed messages (via angel Jibril) in the Prophet's
memory; the Prophet then repeated the verses to his scribes/secretaries, who
recorded them on a variety of written materials. The Prophet then taught the
Verses to his Companions, many of whom memorized the on-going Revelation.
Essentially, this was the standardized procedure in the 23-year transmission of
the Qur'an. There was no deviation or modification to this standard.
The Unlettered (Unscriptured) Prophet: The noble Qur’an refers to the Messenger on
occasions as the ‘unlettered (ummi) prophet’; that is, one who can
neither ‘read’ nor ‘write’, and one who had no knowledge of previous
Scriptures, according to traditional interpretation. Referring to the prophecy
of Muhammad in the Torah and the Gospel, Surah Al-A`raf/7:157
states: “Those who follow the apostle,
the unlettered (ummi) prophet, whom they find mentioned in their own
(Scriptures)—in the Law (Torah) and the Gospel (Injil) …it is they who will
prosper.” And again: “… so believe in Allah and his Messenger, the
unlettered (ummi) Prophet who believe in Allah ….” (al A’raf/7:158).
The Muslim community was also described as “unlettered”: “It is He who was sent amongst the
“unlettered” people (ummiyiin) an apostle from among themselves…” (al-Jumu`ah/62:2). Most
authorities are in agreement that the Allah’s Messenger did not himself write
down the Revelation. The noble Qur’an explicitly confirms this fact: “And thou (O Muhammad) was not a reader of
any scripture before it, nor didst thou write it with thy right hand, for then
might those have doubted who follow falsehood.” (al-Ankabut/29:48). For these reasons and more, the Prophet
appointed scribes to write the divine messages as they were received during his
entire prophetic mission. According to various authorities, the Prophet had
many scribes, ranging from 20 to 60, who wrote down the “revealed messages”
during his prophetic mission.
The Prophet Meets the Young Ansar: Zayd ibn Thabit is Zayd
ibn Thabit ibn al-Dahhak (Abu Kharija). He was born in Madina eleven
years before the Hijra (in 611 C.E.) but was raised in Mecca. His father was
killed when he was six years old, and he emigrated at age eleven to Madina,
approximately the same time the Prophet migrated to that city in 622 C.E. Zayd
and his family were among the first ansars
(helpers) to accept Islam, when members of his
clan embraced the faith and swore allegiance to the Prophet in Year 1 of the
Hijra. In one report Zayd himself reported that the Prophet had just arrived in
Madina and: “I was brought to the Prophet
and the people said: O Messenger of Allah! This is one of the boys of (the
tribe of) Bani al-Najjar, and he has memorized seventeen surahs. So I recited to the Prophet, and he was well
pleased with that.”
Not yet 13, Zayd personally appealed to the Prophet
to join the Muslim army, which was preparing for the Battle of Badr
(2 A.H) against the Makkan pagans. On account of his youth, the Prophet denied
his request and sent him home, much to the distress of his mother al Nawar
bint Malik. A couple of years later, he again attempted to re-enlist in the
Muslim army preparing for the Battle of `Uhud (3 A.H.) with a
group of other teenagers, some of whom were admitted to the ranks, but the
Messenger again rejected Zayd due to his youth and inexperience. Maybe the
Messenger foresaw the heavy burden history would later place on the shoulders
of this young man!
Chief
Scribe to the Prophet: Twice rejected for military
service, Zayd continued his effort to work for the cause of Islam. Though young
in age, he was academically inclined and was also gifted in languages. He could
read and write (a rare commodity at that time). He excelled in Arabic and
distinguished himself in the recitation of Qur’anic surahs. For these reasons,
the Prophet selected him as his Chief Scribe of the Qur’an (kaatib al nabiyy),
despite his youth. This was a characteristic trait of the Prophet—appointing
bright and energetic young people to high office—much to the chagrin of older
companions!
In a hadith in his Sahih, Al Bukhari reported: Al-Bara’ said: “There was revealed ‘not equal are those believers who sit (at
home) and those who strive and fight in the cause of Allah” (al-Nisaa’/4:95).
The Prophet said: ‘Call Zayd for me
and let him bring the board, the ink pot and the scapula bone, (or the scapula
bone and the ink pot.)’ Then he said: ‘Write: Not equal are those believers …’ Several types of materials were used to write down the “revealed verses,”
including palm stalks, white stones, wood, shoulder bones, and leather, among
others.
It has also been reported that the Prophet requested
Zayd to study Hebrew and Syriac to assist him with diplomatic letters and
correspondences, later sent to neighboring heads of state, inviting them to
Islam. Then in his early twenties, Zayd became an exponent of the Qur’an and
one of those who had memorized the existing Revelation as taught by the Prophet
himself. Hadith records also state that Zayd had the unique distinction
to witness the Prophet’s recitation before Jibril
during the last Ramadan. According to Ibn Abi Dawud, once, after the Prophet’s
death, some people went to Zayd and asked him: “Narrate to us something from the Prophet.” He responded: “And what should I narrate to you?” I
used to be a neighbor of the Prophet, so whenever any inspiration came to him,
he would call me to write it…”
Written Qur’an
Existed at the Time of the Prophet’s Death: Tradition holds that, at the time of the Prophet’s
death (in 632 C.E./10 A.H.), the revealed Qur’an existed in written form, with ayat
and surahs (verses and chapters) arranged in order, at the Prophet’s
direction under divine Guidance. For example, Ahmad and others reported:
`Uthman ibn Abi Al-`Aas said: “Once while I was sitting with Allah’s Messenger,
he rolled his eyes upwards in a stare, then after a while he lowered them and
said: ‘Jibril came to me and ordered me to place this ayah in this place in
this surah’: => ‘innallaha ya’-muru bil `adli wal-‘ihsaani wa iitaa’i
dhil qurba.’ => Verily Allah commands justice, kindness, and charity
to close relatives.” [16:90] However, the written verses were not assembled
under two covers in ‘book form.’ That is, the Qur’anic text was completely written
down but was not assembled in one master volume. Ibn Hajar reported: Zayd
ibn Thabit said: ‘The Prophet was taken [from this life] whilst the Qur’an had
not yet been gathered into a book.’
Many reasons have been
advanced as to why the “written Qur’an” was not compiled during the
Prophet’s lifetime, including: the revelation was still continuing, abrogated (naskh)
verses could not be distinguished until the revelation was complete, etc.
However, the most valid reason we can provide is that this massive undertaking
was left to the Prophet’s close Companions, since Allah’s promise had to be
fulfilled: “We have without doubt, sent down the Message; and We will
assuredly guard it (from corruption.)” [15:9] Allah
also reiterated this notion: “It is for
us to collect it and to promulgate it. But when we have promulgated it, follow
thou its recital (as promulgated). Nay, more, it is for us to explain it (and
make it clear).” [75:17-19]
According to Von Denffer, most scholars agree that
the Prophet died nine days after receiving the last
revelation: “And fear the day when ye shall be brought back to God.
Then shall every soul be paid what is earned and none shall be dealth with
unjustly. [2:181] Other scholars hold that the last verse revealed
was: “This day I have perfected your religion for you, completed my favor
upon you and have chosen for you Islam as your religion.” [5:3] It is
thus clear that nine days is not adequate (by any competent standard) to
collect and compile in book form the written Qur’anic manuscript. That work had
to be done by others.
`Umar
Prevailed on Abu Bakr to Collect the Written Verses: After
the Prophet died (632 CE), Abu Bakr succeeded him as the
first rightly-guided Caliph for the entire Muslim commonwealth. Imam al
Bukhari in his Sahih explained that, at the Battle of Yamama (12
A.H.), many huffaz (memorizers
of the oral Qur’an), 70 according to some reports, were killed in battle
against the false prophet Musaylimah (in the wars of apostasy—ridda).
`Umar ibn al Khattab, the wise and visionary Companion of the Prophet,
persuaded Abu Bakr to authorize the “collection of the written Qur’an” due to
the deaths of the numerous Qur’an readers. This was a tall order for Abu Bakr
since the Prophet himself had never suggested such a thing during his lifetime.
Zayd Appointed to Collect Manuscript: After some initial
hesitation over Umar’s request, Abu Bakr finally agreed to sanction this
extraordinary project. He then sent for the Prophet’s Chief Scribe, Zayd ibn
Thabit, and commissioned him to do as Umar had requested, in the following
words: “Zayd, you are young and intelligent, you used to record the
revelations for the Prophet, and we know nothing to your discredit. So pursue
the Qur’an and collect it together …”
Zayd’s
Impeccable credentials: Zayd had excellent
credentials being the chief scribe of the Prophet; this fact alone gave Abu
Bakr comfort and assurance that Zayd was duly qualified to undertake the
formidable task “to gather” the sacred Qur’an together. Zayd’s qualifications
included the following:
·
He
was the well-known Madinite Scribe to the Prophet for the Revelation (kaatib
al wahy al mashur).
·
He
was a renowned hafiz of the Qur’an during the lifetime of the Prophet.
·
He
was a witness to the Prophet’s recitation in the presence of Jibril during the
last Ramadan.
·
He
had irreproachable morals (Abu Bakr said: “we do not accuse you of any
wrongdoing.”)
·
He
was young, knowledgeable, wise, and reliable (with sound and powerful memory).
·
He
had excellent skills in languages (written and spoken), especially in Arabic.
At first, Zayd himself was hesitant to accept the
Caliph’s order to spearhead this novel task. However, like Abu Bakr, he was
soon reconciled to the wisdom of the undertaking and accepted the mission to
head the committee, which included `Umar al Khattab and other companions.
“Law of Witness” Methodology: It is vital to understand the methodology employed by Zayd and
his committee in this project, which required ‘public disclosure and openness’
in the “collection process” to assure acceptance that the written verses
collected were “the divine verses” revealed to the Prophet. This idea of
“authoritativeness” is central to issues of reliability and authenticity
of the “collected manuscript.” The caliph Abu Bakr understood the implication
and gravity of this question. Hence, to assist Zayd in the project, he issued a
general decree requesting that all Muslims, who had copies of written verses (recited
to them by the Prophet himself), to bring such verses to the Prophet’s
masjid (in Madina), along with two reliable witnesses.
Ibn Abi Dawud stated: Abu Bakr told `Umar and
Zayd: ‘Sit at the entrance to the [Prophet’s] masjid. If anyone brings you a
verse from the Book of Allah along with two witnesses, then record it.’ The
written materials, attested by two witnesses, were also compared with oral
recitation of the noted qurra’ for correctness, coherence and consistency.
Zayd’s extraordinary efforts ended with all surahs and verses duly
arranged, probably in the Madinite script and spelling conventions.
This “law of witness” methodology was a critical
procedure applied to authenticate the written Qur’an, a standard later
adopted by hadith scholars: that is, validating the “written verses”, as
confirmed by witnesses to establish reliability and authoritativeness of
the compiled Text. This approach constituted the core of Abu Bakr’s instruction
to Zayd on his appointment as head of the Qur’an project.
Suhuf of Abu Bakr: The compiled manuscript
became known as the Abu Bakr’s Suhuf
{parchment (pages) of sacred writings}, bringing the written Qur’an in
book form under two covers, for the first time ever. The Suhuf was
placed in the state archives in the custody of the Caliph. On his deathbed, Abu
Bakr appointed `Umar to succeed him and entrusted the Suhuf in the
latter’s custody. `Umar’s regime lasted next ten years, during which time he
stabilized the Islamic nation and expanded the borders beyond the Arabian
Peninsula: into Egypt, Syria and Iraq. Sadly, `Umar died at the hands of an
assassin, Abu Lu’Lu. The Suhuf then found its way in the custody
of Hafsa (a hafizah), Umar’s daughter and wife of the late Prophet.
According to al-Bukhari in his Sahih, Hafsa kept the Qur’an in her house
in Madina, but she made it available to anyone who wanted to make copies from
it or check the accuracy of what they had memorized.
Mushaf of
`Uthman: During the reign of the third rashidun Caliph `Uthman ibn
`Affan, the Islamic commonwealth expanded further: into Persia, India, Russia,
China, Turkey, and across North Africa. This rapid expansion of Islam and its
teachings resulted in many problems and disputes, involving the correct reading
and pronunciation of the Suhuf, emanating from certain regions and from
new converts of the growing Islamic empire. Similar concerns were also raised
by `Uthman’s military field commanders over variant readings of the Suhuf.
For these reasons, the third Caliph (with the consensus of the learned) sought
to standardize the Suhuf and ordered the preparation of several copies
to be transcribed from the Suhuf in the custody of Hafsa.
Two accounts have been advanced concerning the
development of what came to be called the “`Uthman’s Mushaf” (`Uthmani
Codex). In both accounts, Caliph `Uthman re-commissioned Zayd
ibn Thabit to head a committee to prepare copies of the Qur’an. In the first
narration, Zayd headed a committee together with three other Companions
to prepare copies from the Suhuf kept by Hafsa.
According to this account, several copies of the Qur’an were made and sent to
various regions of the Islamic empire, together with a Qur’anic reciter. One
copy was made specifically for `Uthman for private use.
In the second account, Zayd was asked to head a
committee of twelve Companions to collect written Qur’anic materials, as was
done in the first compilation of the Abu Bakr’s Suhuf. Ibn Sirin
stated: “When `Uthman decided to collect the Qur’an, he assembled a
committee of twelve from both the Quraysh and the Ansar. Among them were Ubayy
bin Ka`b and Zayd ibn Thabit.” In this narration, the entire Qur’an was
collected and collated, using the “law of witness” procedure described above.
The compiled manuscript was then compared with the Abu Bakr’s Suhuf, and
this Text became known as the `Uthmani Qur’an. In this version also,
several copies (including a personal copy for the Caliph) were made and
distributed to various centers of the far-flung Muslim empire.
Extant `Uthmani Codex: After the `Uthmani
Mushaf was collected, verified and distributed, the Caliph `Uthman ordered
all other existing copies of the Qur’an, held by many, to be destroyed on the
grounds that they were incomplete and included personal written notes in the
manuscripts that could cause confusion.
Questions have arisen as to the existence of the
original “mushaf.” According to
several authorities (including Von Denffer and Ghulam Sarwar), two original
copies of the Mushaf from the time of
Caliph `Uthman still exist today—one in the Topkapi
Museum in Istanbul, Turkey, and the other in Tashkent, Uzbekistan.
The National Library of Karachi,
Pakistan, has a photocopy of the Tashkent original. These sources also claim
that a copy of the Tashkent Mushaf is
now in the Columbia University Library,
USA.
Historic Note on Shi`ism: History has documented the
major split of the embryonic Muslim community early in the first century of
Islam—shortly after the death of the Prophet. The schism that ensued thereafter
divided Islam into two primary branches: the majoritarian Sunni
community (ahl al sunnah wal jama`ah) and the minority Shi`a (ahl al
bay—household of the Prophet), each branch subsequently evolved its own
interpretation of the sacred scripture, theology, rituals and liturgical
practices, exegesis, and Islamic Weltanschauung. However, despite such
differences in interpretation and rituals, the `Uthmani Mushaf
has now been accepted by both branches of Islam (sunni and shi`a)
as the authorized canon.
Historically, there has been questions from Shi`ism
over the validity of the `Uthmani Qur’an. And there is consensus in Shi`a Islam
that `Ali ibn Abu Talib produced a copy of the Qur’an that differed
in arrangement from the `Uthmani Codex. But both the Shi`a Seveners and
Twelvers hold that this, the variance in arrangement, was the only difference
between the Text of `Uthman and that of `Ali. Moreover, it is generally known
that `Ali, when he became the fourth Caliph, made no changes to the `Uthmani
Mushaf, giving credence to the latter’s authenticity.
Over time, many fatawa have been issued by
eminent Shi`a scholars confirming
the authenticity of the `Uthmani Qur’an, including this one by the renowned Ayatullahil-Ozma
Haj Akha Syed Mohsin Hakeem Tabatabayi (Najaf-e-Ashroff-Iraq):
Conclusion: In addition to his critical role in making the
written Qur’an a reality, Zayd ibn Thabit was a highly respected jurist who was
well recognized for his scholarship by fellow Companions during the first
century Hijra. Hadith records relate that Zayd had the unique
distinction of witnessing the Prophet’s recitation before Jibril during the last Ramadan. According to the classical
scholars, Zayd was one of an elite group of seven Companions with requisite
qualifications to render legal opinions and to practice ijtihad (giving
independent legal judgment); the other Companions were deemed not to be in the
same category, due to varying levels of religious scholarship.
As a learned scholar in Islam, Zayd was an
authoritative source for other Companions in deciding cases and giving formal
legal opinions in various matters, including Qur’anic recitation and issues of
inheritance. Thomas William Beale, in his An Oriental Biographical Dictionary,
described Zayd as: “… the earliest
authority on ilm al-fara’ez and maybe called the father of the law of
inheritance. Muhammad is reported to have said to his followers: ‘The most
learned amongst you in the laws of heritage is Zayd; and the caliphs `Umar and `Uthman considered him without an equal
as a judge, a jurisconsult, a calculator in division of inheritance, and a
reader of the Qur’an.” Orientalist Helmut Gatje concluded in his The
Qur’an and Its Exegesis: “… Zayd ibn Thabit played an essential part concerning the
production of the Qur’an in the form in which it appears today.”
It is also said that when the Caliph `Umar used to
travel away from Madina on business, he would leave Zayd in his place until he
returned. Ibn `Abbas, noted for his immense erudition, used to visit Zayd at
home to extract knowledge from him. According to hadith historians, Zayd
related 92 ahadith. When he died in 45 AH (665 C.E.), Abu Hurayra said:
“the scholar of this nation has died today; haply Allah make Ibn `Abbas his
successor.”
(used in this Compilation)
Abdel-Haleem, Muhammad. Understanding the Qur’an: Themes and Style. I.B. Tauris
Publishers Co. Ltd., London,
2001.
Ahmad, Jamil K.: Hundred Great Muslims, Ferozsons ______!
Ali, Maulana Muhammad. The Holy Qur’an: Arabic
Text, English Translation and
Commentary (Revised Edition). Specialty
Promotions Co. Inc. Chicago, 1985.
Ali, S.V. Mir Ahmed and Yazdi, Ayatullah Agha Haji
Mahdi Pooya. The Holy Qur’an:
Arabic Text, with English
Translation and Commentary. Third Edition. Tahrike
Tarsile Qur’an, Inc. New
York, 2002. [This is a highly regarded Shi`a Translation
and Commentary]
Al-Azami, M.M.: The History of the Qur’anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation. UK
Islamic Academy, United Kingdom, 2003.
Beale,
Thomas William: An Oriental Biographical Dictionary. Kitab Bavan, New
Delhi,
1996.
Esack, Farid. The Qur’an: A Short
Introduction. Oneworld Publications, Oxford, 2002.
Esposito, John L.: The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford
University Press, New York,
1999.
Gatje, Helmut: The Qur’an and Its
Exegesis. Oneworld Publications, Oxford, 1996.
Glasse, Cyril: The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam.
Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., 1989.
Glasse, Cyril: The New Encyclopedia of Islam. (Revised
Edition to The Concise
Encyclopedia). AltaMira Press, Walnut Creek, CA, 2001.
Hamid, Abdul Wahid: Companions of the Prophet.
Vol. 2 _______!
Hughes, Thomas P.: Dictionary of Islam. Kazi Publication, USA, 1994.
Al-Imam, Ahmad `Ali: Variant Readings of the Qur’an: A
Critical Study of Their
Historical and Linguistic Origins. International Graphics, Herndon, VA, 1998.
Khalid, Khalid Muhammad: Men Around the Messenger.
Translated by Sheikh
Muhammed Geneiah al Azhar,
Pages 310-312, _______!
Khan, Majid Ali: Muhammad The Final Messenger. Sh.
Muhammad Asraf Publication,
Lahore, 1983.
Madigan Daniel A. The Qur’an’s Self Image. Princeton University Press, Princeton,
2001.
Ibn Naqib al-Misri, Ahmad: The Reliance of the
Traveller: A Classical Manual of Islamic
Sacred Law. Translated by Noah Ha Mim
Keller, Modem Printing Press. Dubai,
1991.
Netton, Richard Ian: Popular Dictionary of Islam.
Humanities Press International, Inc.
NJ, 1992.
Newby, Gordon D.:
A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam.
Oneworld Publishers, Oxford,
2002.
Philips, Abu Ameenah Bilal: Usool at-Tafseer: The Methodology of Qur’aanic
Explanation. Dar Al Fatah, Sharjah, 1997.
Qadhi, Yasir Abu Ammaar: An Introduction to the
Sciences of the Qur’an. Al-Hidaayah
Publishing and Distribution,
United Kingdom, 2003.
Abul-Quasem, Muhammad: The Recitation and Intrepretation of the Qur’an: al-
Ghazali’s Theory. University of Malaysia Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1979.
Sarwar, Ghulam: Islam:
Beliefs and Teachings. Seventh Edition. Muslim Educational
Trust, London, 2003.
Syed, Ibrahim B.: Intellectual Achievements of Muslims. Star Publication, Pvt.
Ltd., New
Delhi, 2002.
Von Denffer, Ahmad: `Ulum al-Qur’an: An
Introduction to the Sciences of the Qur’an.
The Islamic Foundation,
United Kingdom, 1994.
Watt, W, Montgomery and Bell, Richard: Introduction to the Qur’an. Edinburgh
University Press, Edinburgh,
1994.
Watt,
W, Montgomery: Muhammad Mecca: History in
the Qur’an. Edinburgh
University Press, Edinburgh, 1988.
Mohamad K. Yusuff, CPA, MBA, CGFM, is a professional
auditor/accountant. He is currently Director of Internal Audit in the District
of Columbia Government, Washington, DC. He is the Editor of ISWA’s Voice of
Islam and also the academic quarterly, Aalim. He likes to dabble in
comparative religion and international politics and diplomacy.
Posted September 15, 2004